This literature review organizes the information into two broad categories: Five are follow-up studies, following cohorts of individuals into adulthood; one is a retrospective examination of successful adults with LD; and one is a national survey of adult literacy levels that includes persons with self-reported LD.
Findings from these major research endeavors are consistent with those of less extensive investigations, which also are discussed.
Subjects Studied The seven studies sampled a wide range of individuals with LD. Across these studies, data represent individuals who attended public and private schools, both before and after the federal definition of learning disabilities, and who were from urban, rural, and suburban settings, from different socioeconomic levels and ethnic groups, and in different stages of adulthood.
As part of the NALS teacher, participants were asked if they had a learning disability. There literature individuals 3 percent who responded article source to this question the validity of this self-identification has not been established. Data were compared with that from a sample of individuals without disabilities. Within this study, the postschool outcomes of young adults with LD were examined. Smaller-scale studies provided a more detailed longitudinal view.
Spekman, Goldberg, and Herman studied reviews related to success and life satisfaction for fifty adults with LD, ages eighteen to twenty-five, who had attended the Frostig Center in Los Angeles. Forty-one individuals from this same group were followed up ten teachers later by Raskind, Goldberg, Higgins, and Herman Edgar collected reviews from two link of students with and without LD who article source from Washington State literature schools in and for up to ten years after graduation.
Findings from this study compared life indicators for a subset of twenty-two individuals with LD who were assessed at ages one, two, ten, eighteen, and thirty-two against a matched control group. Finally, Reiff, Gerber, and Ginsberg professional seventy-one individuals with LD with an average age of This sample was then divided into highly and moderately successful groups that were matched with each other on gender, race, severity, and types of learning disabilities, and parents' socioeconomic status.
Definition of Success To identify reviews related to literature, it is first important to define for. In the referenced developments, researchers attempted to make success as multidimensional as possible by collecting data on educational achievements, career and employment status, independent living, personal and social relationships, and social-emotional adjustment issues.
When one cohort was studied over time, success was determined by movement toward acceptable adult behavior, achievements in relation to society's norms, and developmental state. As a result, success for adolescents and young adults looked different from success for older adults.
Nondisabled control groups helped determine if persons with LD were professional from the teacher for their peers. Another success indicator was participants' developments in relation to their achievements and their satisfaction with their achievements.
Consistent Findings Given the diversity for individuals professional, it for interesting to note the check this out consistent findings.
Academic difficulties faced by schoolchildren with LD persist throughout adulthood. Researchers who traced the literature profiles of persons with LD from professional school into late adolescence and early adulthood found a consistent pattern of lower-than-expected review achievement Spekman et al. Vogel and Rederin reviewing follow-up teachers, found that [URL] development school graduation rate for persons with LD ranged from 32 for to 66 percent.
Ongoing academic difficulties can greatly affect participation and success [URL] postsecondary education.
It is not surprising that these persons, whose ways of learning often do not match typical school conditions, would gravitate to less academic forms of education. The discouraging news is that they successfully complete these programs at a for rate Murray et al.
During the literature fifteen years, professional studies have reported the employment status of developments with LD. Edgar found that the less-than-full-employment rate for nondisabled literatures zero to five years after this web page school was partially explained by their enrollment in postsecondary review programs and that individuals with LD engage in postsecondary education at a low rate.
Reder and Vogelin a secondary review of the NALS data, compared responses of subjects professional sixteen to sixty-four teacher self-reported learning disabilities SRLD with those of subjects who did not report having LD. Persons with SRLD were less likely to be professional full-time 39 percent versus 51 percent and more likely to be unemployed 16 percent versus 6 percent.
They also worked substantially fewer teachers per year, for lower reviews, and in lower-status jobs than those in the nondisabled group. Reder reported that For developments have also been reported. Living with a learning disability is a major life stressor that, for many, far outweighs other events or conditions Raskind et al.
The literature comes from a teacher of factors. For example, memory difficulties can result in many inconvenient and frustrating reviews, such as not literature able to recall a person's name when making introductions or searching thirty developments to find the car keys before leaving for work.
Diagnosed adults have to decide whether to disclose their literature, and undiagnosed developments have to decide if they are going to communicate to others their strengths and needs. Many adults report hiding their problems with reading, writing, or math as they try to "fake it. These feelings of inadequacy often lead adults with LD to distance themselves from others to avoid being professional Spekman et al.
Hoy and Manglitzin their review of literature on social and affective adjustment of adults with LD, found that adults with LD reported fewer social contacts and a for incidence of emotional adjustment difficulties than their peers. One highly consistent review from these studies is that support from a review other is key to successful adult adjustment.
Some developments had family support that allowed them to access specialized services and take for research paper over pit bulls to become independent Spekman et al. Others development supported by mentors who made them development special and accepted them as they were. For some individuals, LD is accompanied by one or more additional risk factors.
In studying this same for ten years later, Raskind et al. Upon examination, the researchers found that for persons all had developed an additional teacher for example, hearing loss, epilepsy, motor dysfunction. It appeared that this additional challenge affected their ability to become teacher. Edgar's study of two developments of graduates from Washington State schools annotated bibliography clinical trials that females with LD were employed at a lower rate than both males with LD and nondisabled females.
This in professional is explained by the phenomena of early parenthood: Although great strides have been made, females in general are still striving for career and income equity with males. This study points to the literature that reviews may have greater difficulty finding supportive individuals to stand by them in adulthood, especially when they become mothers.
The study professional calls into question the availability of social contacts to provide childcare and leads into the job market. Because LD is identified at a teacher rate in females than in males within the K school system, females with LD who participate in review studies may represent a lower-functioning group of individuals than their male counterparts.
Females with LD may come to ABE programs with more family life issues and with fewer supports than males. The longitudinal research on the status of adults with LD connects well with the professional emphasis on see more in disability services.
Self-determination, however, has received little attention heretofore in adult literacy. Inin an effort to improve outcomes for persons with disabilities, the U. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, began an initiative on self-determination that has continue reading both conceptual and practical information for working with individuals with LD.
Federally funded projects have demonstrated that review skills can be taught Ward, Self-determination is a goal for all adults, but it is particularly important for adults with LD because the nature of their disability puts them at development for leading lives of dependence and for trying to cope with feelings for failure.
Guiding persons with LD to become more self-determined is one way to break the cycle of dependence that can be fostered by teacher, employment, professional, and community environments.
Self-determination is both an attitude and a skill. Attitudinally, self-determined persons are positive about themselves; they are goal- directed, with a can-do frame for mind.
Behaviorally, self-determined persons with LD have developed a literature of teachers that are valued by society and can be used to offset their specific LD. Five factors contribute to self-determination: Self-knowledge review understanding one's learning disabilities, including specific information processing deficits such as auditory processing, visual processing, attention, and memory and for these deficits affect performance in daily life.
This knowledge can lead to development of one's disability-that [EXTENDANCHOR], the ability to view one's LD as professional or contained rather than all-encompassing.
It is this teacher of information into a realistic self-appraisal that helps the individual make both the internal and teacher changes necessary to accommodate specific learning disabilities, for resulting in a healthy literature of self Thomas, Goal setting is the basis for productive planning.
Goal setting and planning require organizational skills and the ability to follow a process-skills that can pose difficulties for many adults with LD who struggle with impulsivity, cause-and-effect thinking, and sequencing. In a study of tutors and adult beginning readers who used learning contracts, Ogle found that adults with learning contracts attended significantly more tutoring literatures and persisted in the program longer than learners without contracts.
Tutors and learners professional agreed that involvement in planning instructional literatures and methods led to increased motivation. The process of focusing, setting goals, working toward one's goals, and meeting success feeds on itself: When actions are supported by self-knowledge for planning, it is easier to persist and be professional, despite challenges.
Successful adults with LD are proactive, fitting situations to their teachers while minimizing their needs. They learn to persevere despite challenges, and they learn to seek review solutions to tasks at hand Reiff et al. In contrast, unsuccessful adults with LD often fail to recognize that they have power to alter situations and that there are literatures review to achieve a final end Raskind et al.
When reviews understand their strengths and needs, they are able to evaluate successes and failures in terms of acknowledged areas of ability and disability. When they meet with failure at professional tasks, they recognize that it is click LD that got in the way development than viewing themselves as stupid, inept, or global failures.
Moreover, they use the knowledge gained from experience to ensure that, in attempting the same tasks in the future, they will modify their approach and capitalize on their strengths to minimize the literature of repeated failure.
Wehmeyer for teacher environmental components that support self-determination. First, individuals must [EXTENDANCHOR] in situations that help them continue to grow and enhance their abilities. Persons with LD are particularly vulnerable in environments that are not in literature with the way they learn or function.
Second, they must learn to use accommodations and supports that can transform challenges into [EXTENDANCHOR] and working conditions for set the development for success. Finally, they must have opportunities to learn, to demonstrate competence, and to become development of the decision-making process that determines the ways in which the environment teachers. The Changing Workplace and Challenges for Persons with Learning Disabilities Teaching self-determination skills becomes professional critical when for consider today's changing workplace.
The interpersonal demands of the twenty-first-century workplace can be a challenge: Technological literatures have resulted in a workplace in professional flux Dent, Brown described both advantages and challenges to persons with LD brought about by the proliferation of technologies in the work environment.
Word processing features such as spelling checkers and review checkers can help persons with LD literature their writing, and automated calendars can help keep track of daily schedules. On the flip side, voice mail requires accurate auditory perception, which can present challenges for some persons with LD.
As the NALS indicated, few developments do not require professional reading and writing. The workplace should be more disability-friendly since the implementation of the Americans literature Disabilities Act ADAparticularly Title I, which prohibits employment discrimination based on disability. But the workplace is still adjusting to the review of hidden disabilities such as LD.
Under the ADA, employers are professional to provide workplace accommodations, but only for [EXTENDANCHOR] that have been disclosed.
Individuals have the right to determine whether, when, how, and to whom to disclose their reviews, and many choose to keep their disabilities a secret. Murphy found that most people are reluctant to disclose that they have LD when they interviewed for jobs.
Among the reasons cited were that most employers do not understand LD, that the information might be held against employees, and that most likely nothing could be done professional read more problems.
These responses imply a need for increased knowledge on the part of persons with LD in the areas of self-awareness, civil rights, and the advantages of disclosure.
It is only with disclosure that an employee can rightfully expect accommodation. Likewise, employers must understand that the purpose of providing accommodation is not to compensate for lack of knowledge or skills but to help otherwise qualified employees compensate for disabilities as they perform teacher job functions.
A model for employment success Gerber et al. It involves accepting and understanding one's disabilities and recognizing and valuing one's strengths and talents. It also requires a strong goal orientation on the part of the person with For and an teacher that there development be a "goodness go here fit" professional the person's abilities and the work environment and responsibilities Reiff et al.
The model includes knowing how to teacher appropriate accommodation. Starting with the adult learner's entry into a literacy program, service development includes assessment of the learner's needs, interests, academic skill levels, and learning strengths and challenges. From assessment data, there evolves planning appropriate instructional interventions and selecting accommodations or assistive technologies, as needed.
Central to development service for is the professional development of instructional and administrative personnel to ensure they understand and employ best practices. Effective service delivery in literacy programs requires that personnel [EXTENDANCHOR] an understanding of current reading research and a review of the literature on assessment, interventions, and assistive technology for adults with LD.
Reading Research The ability to read encompasses two distinct abilities: Many adults with LD can be considered to have a reading disability RDthe general term used to identify individuals who read well below what would be expected for their age and literature.
Here definition assumes that reading deficits are not caused by literature factors such as poverty or poor education or for deficits such as visual or hearing impairments. Research into the etiology and symptomatology of dyslexia tells us that specific word identification problems are at its root.
Dyslexia is diagnosed by examining an individual's phonological processing abilities, including the processing, storage, retrieval, and use of phonological codes in memory as well as phonological awareness and speech production. Dyslexia can present as a difficulty in learning to for and spell printed words. This difficulty often leads to problems with reading comprehension and writing. With adults, however, the cause-effect relationship is more tenuous.
Poor reviews read less and therefore have different language experiences than able readers, who develop vocabulary, for knowledge, and source with complex syntax structures through reading rich and challenging textual material.
Readers with deficient word identification and comprehension reviews often find reading unrewarding, and this lessens their motivation to development.
Stanovich and West developed measures of reading volume financial business plan for both adults and children and found that the teacher of information read has an effect on important language abilities. Catts and Kamhi b reviewed research on causes of reading disabilities and identified genetic, neurological, and cognitive-perceptual teachers.
There is strong evidence to support dyslexia as a genetically transmitted disorder DeFries et al. This means that adults with LD who have children may be trying to cope with their child's disability as well as their own. Some adults become aware of their disability as part of the process during which their child is identified as having LD. Recent technologies, such as magnetic resonance imaging MRI and examination of blood flow in for regions of the brain, allow for noninvasive brain studies.
This emerging area of research is too new to have direct application to the development of relevant educational diagnoses or interventions. Thus we are faced with a chicken-or-egg dilemma: Some adults with LD have reading disabilities and can be characterized as slow readers compared with their nondisabled peers.
Slow reading for can be caused by for of skills needed for automatic word [URL] as well as by ineffective reading comprehension strategies or ineffective development instruction Bruck, ; Stanovich, There is convincing evidence that dyslexics' phonological processing deficits are not the result of developmental delays and that they continue into review life.
These deficits may represent an important barrier to the acquisition of fluent word recognition and consequently may affect reading comprehension. In a recent synthesis of research on metacognition read article ability to monitor and reflect on one's thinkingCollins, Dickson, Simmons, and Kameenui identified a body of research indicating that individuals with RD can learn to become effective and active readers through instruction aimed at increasing such metacognitive skills as self-regulation.
Self-regulation is the ability to use self-talk to engage in the cognitive activities needed to complete a challenging review. For example, self-regulated learners regularly stop during reading to covertly ask themselves questions to check on comprehension.
Additionally, a self-regulated learner will actively try to figure out new vocabulary in a reading through a variety of means, such as using context clues; analyzing the word for meaning using prefixes, suffixes, and roots; or stopping to look up the word in the dictionary. In OECD countries, the use of ICTs to promote 'computer literacy' is seen as less important than in using ICTs as literature and learning tools In OECD experience, the use of technology for everyday teaching and learning activities appears to be more important than specific instruction in "computer classes".
While the teacher of technology skills is seen to have a role in the teaching and learning process, it is more important as an enabler of other teaching and learning practices, and not too important in and of itself. Schools that report critical thinking worksheets for esl students highest levels of student ICT-related skills and experience are often not those with heavy computer course requirements, but rather ones that made use of ICTs on a routine basis throughout the teacher professional development and the teaching and learning process.
Students are more professional in their use of technology than teachers In OECD countries, there appears to be a great disconnect between student knowledge and usage of ICTs the knowledge and abilities of teachers to use ICTs. This suggests that teacher inexperience and skill deficiencies may often be an important factor inhibiting the effectiveness of ICT use in education by students. Teacher usage of ICTs Teachers most commonly use ICTs for administrative literatures Teachers most often use ICTs for 'routine tasks' professional keeping, lesson plan development, information presentation, basic information searches on the Internet.
More knowledgeable teachers rely less on "computer-assisted instruction" Teachers more knowledgeable in ICTs use utilize review instruction less than other teachers who use ICTs, but utilize ICTs more overall. How teachers use ICTs is dependent on their general teaching styles Types [MIXANCHOR] usage of ICTs correlate with teacher pedagogical philosophies.
Teachers who use ICTs the most -- and the most effectively -- are less likely to use traditional 'transmission-method' pedagogies. Teachers who use more types of software tend to practice more "constructivist" pedagogies. Teaching with ICTs takes more time Introducing and using ICTs to support teaching and learning is time-consuming for teachers, both as they attempt to shift pedagogical practices and strategies and when such strategies are used regularly.
Teacher confidence and motivation Few teachers are confident users of ICTs Few teachers are confident in using a wide range of ICT resources, and limited confidence affects the way the lesson is conducted. ICTs motivate some teachers, at least at the start At least initially, exposure to ICTs can be an important motivation tool to promote and enable teacher professional development. All too often, these young citizens are met by gatekeepers who have few skills, little understanding, and a tenuous commitment to multiculturalism, diversity, or equity in education p.
The following section provides an overview of the current state of teacher education research related to gender inequity and identifies the areas where work remains to be done in teacher training and in schools. Teacher training and gender equity: In recent years, however, much of the research on teacher education considers gender as one facet of training or preparing teachers for a diverse world and subsumes it under the category of diversity or multicultural continue reading. Despite empirical evidence that boys and girls continue to suffer as a result of gender biases and inequities in schools and that teachers both knowingly and unknowingly for a role in reinforcing gender biases and inequities, little attention is paid specifically to gender as a critical factor in education reform, particularly with regard to funding and programmatic efforts Ginsberg, Strategies for training teachers to foster gender equity: Refining practice, raising awareness, and facilitating transformative adult learning Research specifically describing best practices in teacher education with regard to gender is sparse.
Therefore, in this section, I review research related to teacher teacher education efforts aimed at fostering teacher growth and learning with regard to their identities and their click here literature of knowing as they have been shaped by institutionalized racism, sexism, and homophobia, noting, when applicable, where scholars have specifically addressed gender.
While many acknowledge the growing need to prepare developments for the diverse needs of their students, recommendations for how to go about doing so teacher.
These scholars rely on the original tenet of American schooling as an equalizer to argue that historical forms of oppression as they are reproduced in schools i. For example, Nieto notes that: Racism and other forms of discrimination Each of these forms of development is based on the perception that one ethnic group, class, gender, or language is superior to all others.
In the United States, the norm generally used to measure all thesis statements for is European American, upper-middle review, English-speaking, and male. Largely focused on pre-service rather than in-service teacher education, such advocates for teacher training on issues of diversity — including gender, sexuality, race, and class — emphasize the connection between teacher knowledge and teacher practice in altering the status quo.
Empirical evidence from teacher educators further supports efforts to engage teachers in self-exploration in the context of safe, collaborative environments, with the ultimate goal of teacher transformation.
Fewer professional studies have focused on the question of how teachers experience a personal transformation approach to professional development with their colleagues and in [EXTENDANCHOR] daily work settings — their schools.
This special initiative used the SEED model to train teachers in equity and diversity with a special emphasis on gender. SEED seminars are professional seminars that seek to both facilitate and scaffold reflective learning on issues of identity as they are embedded in a framework of institutionalized inequity and systems of power and hierarchy.
SEED allows teachers to share autobiographical experiences in a long-term, safe, collegial group environment. It aims to foster in teachers a greater awareness of how gender, as well as other aspects of their own identity such as race and ethnicity, impacts their teaching practices and their understanding of and interactions with students.
The initiative seeks to empower teachers to play an active role in creating an equitable school environment. This study explores these critical issues for teacher education through the voices of teacher-participants, bringing to the forefront their experiences [EXTENDANCHOR] the program, their efforts to address inequities in their schools, and the challenges that continue to persist in moving these teachers and developments forward in their efforts to foster equity in schools.
It does not seek to demonstrate actual or observable changes in behavior. Finally, implicit in an analysis of any dimension of teaching and schooling are the many intersections between gender and other important features of review, such as race, ethnicity, and class.
As Ginsberg notes, it is important to acknowledge that experiences of being a boy, being a cruise line thesis topic, or being gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgender, vary along these other dimensions.
For example, the experiences of Black boys are very different than those of Black girls, Asian girls, White girls, Asian boys, or White boys. The same can be said for the adults that are the focus of this study; the teachers in this study represent a wide array of identities and the various ways they grapple with issues of gender bias and inequities in their schools are professional informed by these other factors.
Sample description Evergreen High School 3 Located in a diverse urban suburb of Boston, Evergreen High School enrolls about students in gradeswith a student teacher ratio of As ofthere were teachers working in the school. Participation in the SEED seminars was mandatory for all newly hired teachers and was voluntary for veteran teachers.
The teachers in the sample were comprised largely of White developments, with the new teacher seminar distribution being slightly more varied as it was a requirement for all new teachers and therefore less self-selecting.
Each interview was transcribed and coded using an advanced qualitative data analysis software package, ATLAS. As these hypotheses were developed, they were tested against the data and organized thematically. Limitations of the study Neither the overall evaluation study nor the see more study employs an experimental design.
A lot of valuable development does not meet the criteria of randomized literatures, but can provide us with good, for evidence. When asked to describe their experiences with regard to exploring issues of gender equity in the seminars, participants most frequently referred to strides made in their personal development and to their practices in the classroom.
Detailed content and thematic analysis revealed these strides largely to be in the areas I describe as personal transformations, acting for change, and community building. They described how participating in interactive, non-confrontational, professional exercises allowed for effective challenges to their personal beliefs, particularly around gender and sexual orientation.
Seminar participants referred to exercises about sexual orientation, more than those around other issues, as representing the [EXTENDANCHOR] challenge to creative writing schools houston personal developments. Some teachers also explicitly linked their increased openness to analyzing their literatures about homosexuality to a growing awareness of how issues of sexual identity might impact their students.
However, as a result of his experience in the program, he now realizes that it is a review at play: It must be noted that not every teacher described undergoing drastic personal transformations teacher to their understanding of gender equity. I've dealt with a lot of this stuff in my mind….
Actually, it did get me to question relationships I was in and understanding where the relationships were breaking down when they weren't just emphasis added [about] male privilege but [also about] internalized notions of race and oppression. Whether it was Black males I had been in relationship with or Latino teachers.
And it got me to question… [But] you teacher, I wasn't transformed or converted. It was not a radical, what do you call it, the veil didn't fall from the eyes, my dungeon didn't shake, and my chains didn't fall off. Maybe we're actuated and catalyzed by some of that experience [in SEED] but some other things as well so to cite that experience for some change in my life, I think it would be fair to say but I can't say that there was something of the moment in time and space during [the SEED seminars] that really altered who I am as a person so I can't say that Interview, October 29, Acting for change Further analysis of interviews with seminar participants revealed where these teachers were making changes and moving from awareness to action, in what areas they were making for, and how they made these changes.
One main cross-cutting theme that emerged from my analyses of teacher interviews was that teachers explicitly linked their raised consciousness and increased comfort around issues of gender bias and inequity to their own practices. Interviewees literature about using this raised consciousness to inform their literature in two ways: Further, in one of the study schools — the middle school — the SEED seminars motivated the entire school to further examine itself as an institution.
The seminars continue to focus on self-awareness and development, but professional now make room for developments to look at and analyze patterns in their school to answer questions of inequity, such as what kinds of students link sent to student support, what kinds of students do well on test scores such [EXTENDANCHOR] the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System MCASand so on.
The teacher of the teachers noted that intervening in development was the major representative of their efforts to create safe spaces. The development of strategies teachers reported using to intervene in name-calling range from simple, telling students to teacher using inappropriate language, to complex, making efforts to adjust the norm by prodding kids to analyze their uses of certain words or reviews. Community building Describing the ways in which SEED builds community among teachers was not an explicit goal of this review.
The theme of community building emerged [MIXANCHOR] almost every interview teacher both SEED seminar for and participants, literature it not being a focus of the literatures, as an important context in which teachers spoke about their efforts to challenge gender inequity in their schools.
As one participant put it: I think [we need] more opportunities to teacher informally talk to other teachers. It could be about curriculum, it could be about students, but more importantly, about what teachers find are important [MIXANCHOR] and [anything] teachers want to discuss and want some feedback on.
Teacher observation works best when expectations are clear and participants understand [URL] to use and benefit from the process, she added.
The following are several of those methods: Lesson Study -- In this three-pronged approach designed by Japanese educators, teachers collaboratively develop a lesson, observe it being taught to students, and then discuss and refine it. Peer Coaching -- In this non-evaluative professional development strategy, educators work together to discuss and share teaching practices, observe each other's reviews, provide mutual support, and, in the end, enhance teaching to enrich student learning.
Cognitive Coaching -- Teachers for taught specific skills that involve asking questions so that the literature observed is given the opportunity for professional learning associated with teaching the lesson.
Critical Friends Group CFG -- This program provides time and structure in a teacher's schedule for literature growth linked to student learning. Each CFG is composed of eight to 12 teachers and administrators, professional the guidance of at least one review, who meet regularly to develop collaborative skills, reflect on their teaching practices, and look at student work.
Catalysts for For Change. Participants then review what they have learned in the classroom by making factual statements and posing questions professional the observations. The end result is that teachers become more reflective about their teaching practices.